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article title for Титан (элемент) on wafarin.com

Interested Article - Титан (элемент)

22
?????
47,867
3d 2 4s 2

?????? ( ?????????? ?????? — Ti, ?? ???. Ti tanium) — ?????????? ??????? 4-? ?????? (?? ?????????? ????????????? — ???????? ????????? ????????? ??????, IVB), ?????????? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ?. ?. ?????????? , ? ??????? ??????? 22. ????????? ? ?????????? ???????? .

??????? ???????? ????? ? ?????????? ???????? — ??? ?????? ?????? ??????????-?????? ?????. ???????? ??????? ???????????? ?????????? .

???????

???????? ???????? ?????? (TiO 2) ??????? ??????????? ???????????? ? ?????????? ???? ?? ????? ?????????? ?. ?????? ? ???????? ????? ?. ?. ??????? . ?. ??????, ???????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ????? (????, ????????, ??????, 1791 ), ??????? ????? «?????» ( ????? ) ???????????? ???????, ??????? ?????? ???????????. ? 1795 ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????? ? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ? ?????? ??? ???????. ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????????, ??? ????? ? ??????????? ????? — ?????? ?????? ? ???? ?? ????????, ?? ??????? ? ???????? ???????? «?????», ???????????? ?????????. ????? 10 ??? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ? ?????? ???: ??????????? ?????? ?. ?????? ????????? ????? ? ??????? ? ???????, ??? ????? ? ?????? — ?????????? ?????? ??????.

?????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ??????? ? 1825 ???? ???? ?. ?. ????????? . ??-?? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ? ????????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? Ti ???????? ????????? ?. ??? ?????? ? ?. ?? ??? ? 1925 ???? ??????????? ??????????? ????? ?????? ?????? TiI 4 .

????? ?? ??????? ????????????? ??????????, ???? ???????????? ????????? ????? ? 1940 ???? ?? ???????????? ??????? ????????????????? ????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ?????? ?? ???????????? ; ???? ????? ( (????.) () ?? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ???????? ? ???????????? ????????? ??????.

????????????? ????????

?????? ??????? ???? ???????? ? ????? ??????? , ?????????? ??????????????? ?????????, ????? ??? . ???????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????? ? ???????????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ???????????? ? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????, ??? ??????? ????????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????????? ?????????. ????????? ???????? ????????????? ??? ??????? ????????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????, ?? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?????????, ?? ???????? ? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? .

?????????? ? ???????

????? ????????? ?? 9-? ????? ?? ?????????????????? ? ???????. ?????????? ? ?????? ???? — 0,57 % ?? ?????, ? ??????? ???? — 0,001 ??/? . ? ?????????????? ??????? 300 ?/?, ? — 9 ??/?, ? ?????? 2,3 ??/?, ? ?????? ? ??????? 4,5 ??/?. ? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????????????? ? ???????????? ?????? ? ??????????? ???????????. ? ????????? ???? ?? ???????????. ????? ? ???????? ???????????? ? ????????? ????? ????????????? ???????? ? Al 2 O 3 . ?? ??????????????? ? ???????? ???? ???????????? ? ? ??????? ????????? ???????. ??????? ?????? ?????????????? ? ???? ???????????? ???????? ????????? ? ? ???? ????????? . ?? 30 % TiO 2 ?? ???? ????????????? ? ????????? ??????. ???????? ?????? ????????? ? ???????????? ? ???????? ??????? ???????????? ? ????????. ???????? ????? 100 ?????????, ?????????? ?????. ????????? ?? ???: ????? TiO 2 , ???????? FeTiO 3 , ?????????????? FeTiO 3 + Fe 3 O 4 , ????????? CaTiO 3 , ??????? (????) CaTiSiO 5 . ????????? ???????? ???? ?????? — ????????-?????????????????? ? ????????? — ?????-????????-?????????? .

?????????????

??????? ???????? ????????????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ??? , ?????? , ??????? , ?????? , ??? , ????? , ???????? , ?????? , ?????? , ????????? , ????? , ????? ????? , ?????????? , ????????????? ; ????????? ????????????? ??????? ? ???????? , ?????, ???, ??????-????? , ????????? . ? ??????? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ??? ???????? ?? (58,5 %) ? ??????? (40,2 %) . ?????????? ????????????? ? ?????? — ???????? .

?????? ? ??????

???????? ???? : ???????? (FeTiO 3 ), ????? (TiO 2 ), ??????? (CaTiSiO 5 ).

?? ?????? ?? 2002 ???, 90 % ??????????? ?????? ?????????????? ?? ???????????? ???????? ?????? TiO 2 . ??????? ???????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????? 4,5 ??? ? ? ???. ?????????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? (??? ??????) ?????????? ????? 800 ??? ?. ?? 2006 ???, ?? ?????? ????????????? ?????? ???, ? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ? ??? ????? ??????, ?????? ???????????? ??? ?????????? 603—673 ??? ?, ? ????????? — 49,7—52,7 ??? ? . ????? ???????, ??? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? (??? ????? ??????) ?????? ????? ??? ?? 150 ???.

?????? ???????? ??????? ? ????, ????? ?????, ???????? ??????. ??????????-???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????????? 20 ????????????? (?? ??? 11 ???????? ? 9 ?????????), ?????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ?? ?????????? ??????. ????? ??????? ?? ??????????? ????????????? (????????) ????????? ? 25 ?? ?? ?????? ???? (?????????? ????). ?????? ????????????? ??????????? ? 2 ???? ? ???? ?? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ?????? ????? 10 % .

?????????? ? ???? ????????????? ?????? — ?????????? ???????? « ?????-?????? ».

?????????? ????????

????? — ?????? ??????????-????? ?????? . ??? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ? ???? ??????????????? ????????????: ?????????????????? ? -Ti ? ?????????????? ????????????????? ???????? ( ?????????????? ???????? , ???????????????? ?????? C 6 mmc , ????????? ?????? a = 0,2953 ?? , c = 0,4729 ?? , Z = 2) ? ??????????????????? ? -Ti ? ?????????? ???????-?????????????? ????????? ( ?????????? ???????? , ???????????????? ?????? Im 3 m , ????????? ?????? a = 0,3269 ?? , Z = 2), ??????????? ???????? ??? 883 °C, ??????? ???????? ? H =3,8 ???/???? (87,4 ???/?? ). ??????????? ???????? ??? ??????????? ? ?????? ????????????? ? -???? ? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ??? . ??? ???????? ???? 9 ??? ? ??????????? ???? 900 °C ????? ????????? ? ?????????????? ???? ( ? -Ti) . ????????? ? -Ti ? ? -Ti ?????????????? ????? 4,505 ?/??³ (??? 20 °C) ? 4,32 ?/??³ (??? 900 °C) . ?-?????? 5,67?10 22 ??/??³ .

??????????? ????????? ?????? ??? ?????????? ???????? ????? 1670 ± 2 °C, ??? 1943 ± 2 ? (??????? ? ???????? ????? ?? ????????? ????????????? ????? ????????????? ????? (????.) () . ??????????? ??????? 3287 °C . ??? ?????????? ?????? ??????????? (-80 °C) , ????? ?????????? ???????? ???????. ???????? ???????????? ??? ?????????? ???????? C p = 25,060 ???/(????·K), ??? ????????????? ???????? ???????????? 0,523 ???/(??·K) . ??????? ????????? 15 ???/???? , ??????? ????????? 410 ???/???? . ?????????????????? ?????????? ??????????? 430 ? . ???????????????? 21,9 ??/(?·?) ??? 20 °C . ????????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????????? 9,2·10 ?6 ? ?1 ? ????????? ?? ?120 ?? +860 °C . ???????? ???????? ? -?????? S 0 = 30,7 ???/(????·?) . ??? ?????? ? ??????? ???? ????????? ???????????? ? H 0
f = 473,0 ???/????, ??????? ?????? ? G 0
f = 428,4 ???/????, ???????? ???????? S 0 = 180,3 ???/(????·?), ???????????? ??? ?????????? ???????? C p = 24,4 ???/(????·K)

???????? ????????????? ????????????? ??? 20 °C ?????????? 0,58 ?? ?? ·? (?? ?????? ?????? 0,42 ?? ?? ·? ), ??? 800 °C 1,80 ????·? . ????????????? ??????????? ????????????? 0,003 ? ?1 ? ????????? 0—20 °C .

?????????, ??????????? ? ???????? ?????????. ??????????? ?????????????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????????, ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ? ??????????????? ????????? . ??? ???????????? ?????? ????????? ?? ???????? ?????????? 790—800 ???, ?????? ?????????? ????????? 103 ???, ?????? ?????? 39,2 ??? . ? ????????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? 140—170 ???, ????????????? ????????? 55—70 %, ????????? ?? ???????? 175 ??? .

????? ??????? ????????, ??? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ? ????????? ?? ??????? ??????????, ? ??????? ????????? ????????? ??????????? ???????? ?? ??????????, ????????? ?????? .

??? ??????? ??????????? ??????????? ???????? ????????????? ??????? ?????? TiO 2 , ????????? ????? ???????????????? ? ??????????? ???? (????? ????????).

??????????? ???????? ? ??????????????? ????????? 0,387 ?. ??? ???????????? ???? 73 ? ????? ???????????? . ????????? ??????????????? ??? 20 °C ?????????? 3,2·10 ?6 . ?????????? ????? ? -?????? ????? +1,82·10 ?13 .

???????

???????? ??????? ?????? ? ????????? ??????? ?? 38 ?? 63 (?????????? ???????? 22, ????????? ?? 16 ?? 41), ? 2 ??????? ??????? .

????????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ?? ????????? ????????? ??????????????????? : 46 Ti (7,95 %), 47 Ti (7,75 %), 48 Ti (73,45 %), 49 Ti (5,51 %), 50 Ti (5,34 %).

????? ????????????? ???????? ????? ???????????? 44 Ti ( ?????? ??????????? 60 ???) ? 45 Ti (?????? ??????????? 184 ??????).

?????????? ????????

???????? ? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????? , ?? ??? ??????????? ? ???????, ? ????? ? ?????? ??????? ??? ????????? ????? ????????? . ????????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????????. ??????????? ??????? — 400 °C. ????????? ??????? ????????????.

????? ???????? ? ???????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ? ??????? (????? HF , H 3 PO 4 ? ????????????????? H 2 SO 4 ). ????? ???????? ? ???????? ????? ? ?????? ????????? ????? .

????? ????????? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ? ??????????? ??????????????????????, ????????, ? ?????????? ???????? HF ?? ??????????????? ????????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????? [TiF 6 ] 2? . ????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ? ???????????? ??????, ??? ??? ? ??????????? ???? ?? ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ? ??????? ??????. ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????????? ?????????? ???? ? ??????????? ????? ? 0,5 ?? 8,0 %, ??? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????? ? ????????? ?????? ? ??????? ? ????????? ?????-???????????? ?????? .

??? ?????????? ?? ??????? ?? 1200 °C Ti ?????????? ????? ????? ???????? ? ???????????? ???????? ??? ??????????? ??????? TiO x . ?? ????????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ????????? TiO(OH) 2 ·xH 2 O, ?????????? ????????????? ???????? ???????? ????? TiO 2 . ????????? TiO(OH) 2 ·xH 2 O ? ??????? TiO 2 ????????? .

TiO 2 ??????????????? ? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????????? ?????????. ??? ?????????? ? ????? Na 2 CO 3 ??? ??????? K 2 CO 3 ????? TiO 2 ???????? ????????:

T i O 2 + K 2 C O 3 ? K 2 T i O 3 + C O 2 {\displaystyle {\mathsf {TiO_{2}+K_{2}CO_{3}\rightarrow K_{2}TiO_{3}+CO_{2}}}}

??? ?????????? Ti ??????????????? ? ?????????? (????????, ? ?????? — ??? 550 °C ). ??????????? ?????? TiCl 4 ??? ??????? ???????? — ?????????? ????????, ?????? ??????? ?? ???????, ??? ??????????? ?????????? TiCl 4 , ????????????? ? ??????? ?????? ???? ? ???????????? ?????????? ??????? HCl ? ?????? .

??????????????? TiCl 4 ????????? , ????????? , ???????? , ??????? ???????? ????????????????, ??????? ????????? ? ???????? ?????? TiCl 3 ? TiCl 2 — ??????? ????????, ?????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ??????????. Ti ??????????????? ? Br 2 ? I 2 .

? ?????? N 2 ???? 400 °C ????? ???????? ?????? TiN x (x = 0,58—1,00). ????? — ???? ?? ???????? ?????????, ??????? ????? ? ????????? ????? .

??? ?????????????? ?????? ? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? TiC x (x = 0,49—1,00).

??? ?????????? Ti ????????? H 2 ? ???????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????? TiH x (x = 2,00—2,98). ??? ?????????? ??? ??????? ??????????? ? ?????????? H 2 .

????? ???????? ?????? ? ?????????????????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ?????????.

?????????

?????? ???????????????? ?????? (??????? 99,995 %, ??? 283 ?, ????? 14 ??, ??????? 25 ??), ????????????? ?? ?????? « » ???????? ??????? ??? ?????? ? ?? ???? .

??? ???????, ???????? ?????????? ??? ???????????? ?????? ? ??? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????????? ????????? ??????????? ????????. ? ?????????, ??? ????? ???? ????????? ??????????, ?????????? ??? ?????????? ????????? ???. ?????? ?????? ?????? ? ???? ?????? ??????????, ? ???? ????????? ??? ?????????? ????????????? ????? ??? ????????? ???? , ?????????? ??? ??????????? ???????????? ????????????.

??? ????????? ?????????? ????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????????????? ? (+ ?????-???????? ), ??? ???? ?????? ?????????? ? ????????????? ???? ( ????? ), ? ????????????????? ?????? ?????? ? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????. ??????? ???? ?????????????? ????????? ??? ?????????????? ????????.

?????????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ?????????????? ??? ???????????????????? ???????????. ??????? ?????????????? ????????? — ??????? ???????? ?????? TiO 2 . ???????????????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ? ?????? ? ???????????? ?????? , ??????? ???? ???????????? ?????? TiCl 4 :

T i O 2 + 2 C + 2 C l 2 ? T i C l 4 + 2 C O {\displaystyle {\mathsf {TiO_{2}+2C+2Cl_{2}\rightarrow TiCl_{4}+2CO}}}

???????????? ???? TiCl 4 ??? 850 °C ??????? :

T i C l 4 + 2 M g ? 2 M g C l 2 + T i {\displaystyle {\mathsf {TiCl_{4}+2Mg\rightarrow 2MgCl_{2}+Ti}}}

????? ?????, ? ????????? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ??? ?????????? ??????? FFC Cambridge, ????????? ?? ?????? ??? ????????????? ?????? ????, ???? ???????? ? ??????? ???? ?? ????????????? ???????????? , ??? ?? ??? ??????. ???? ????????????????? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ?????? ??????????? ?????????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ? ????????? ??????? (?????? ???????). ? ???? ???????? ???????????? ????????????????? ?????, ??????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ? ???????, ? ?????????? ??????????? (???? ???????????) ?????? ? ???????, ????????????? ?? ??????????? ?????????????? ??????. ??? ??????????? ????? ????? ???? ??????????? ?????? ????????? ~1000—1100 °C, ? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ? ????????????? ??????? :

2 C a O ? 2 C a + O 2 {\displaystyle {\mathsf {2CaO\rightarrow 2Ca+O_{2}}}}

?????????? ???????? ???????? ???? (? ?????? ????????????? ???????), ? ??????? ????????? ? ???????? ? ??????, ??? ? ??????????????? ????? ?? ??? ??????:

O 2 + C ? C O 2 {\displaystyle {\mathsf {O_{2}+C\rightarrow CO_{2}}}}
T i O 2 + 2 C a ? T i + 2 C a O {\displaystyle {\mathsf {TiO_{2}+2Ca\rightarrow Ti+2CaO}}}

???????????? ????? ??????? ????? ???????????? ?? ???????? ? ????????????? ???????, ? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ? ????????? ????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???????. ?????? ??????? ? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ??? ?????????? ??? ???????? ?????????????????? ???????? ? ??????????? ???????? ????? ??????? ? ?????????. ??? ????????????? ????????? ????? (????????, ???????? ????? ), ?????? ??????????? ???? ?? ????? ?????????? ???????????? ????????, ??? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????, ?????? ??????? ? ????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ??????????, ?, ????? ????, ? ????????? ???????? ????? ????????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????, ? ?? ?????? ???????, ??? ???????? ? ????????????? ????????????? ????? .

?????????? ????????? «?????» ???????????? ? ???????. ?????????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ???????????? , ??????? Ti ?? TiCl 4 . ??? ????????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ???????, ??????????-??????? ??? ?????????? ???????????.

??????????

? ?????? ???? ? ? ???? ???????

???? ?? ?????????? ??????
????????? ?????????? ????????? ??????????? F-15 ?? ? ????? ??????????? ?? ???????????? ?????? ???????? Alcoa ??????? 45 ???. ????, ??? 1985

????????????? ?????????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????????? ???, ??? ??? ????????? ???????? ????? ????????? ????? ??? ???, ??? ?? ?? 45 % ?????. ????? ?? 60 % ??????? ????????, ?? ????????? ??? ???????? ????? ??????. .

  • ????? ? ???? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ? ????- ? ??????????????, ? ???????????????.
  • ?????? ??????????? ? ?????????? ?????????????? ( ???????? , ???????????? , ?????? , ?????????????? ???????? ), ??????? ?????????????? (???????????, ????? ? ??????????????? ??????????? ? ???????, ??????? ????????? ?????), ???????????? ????????? (?????????????? ??????????, ????????? ????????? ? ??????), ????????????? ??????????????, ???????????????????? ??????????????, ??????? ??????????????, ?????????? ???????, ????????? ????????, ????????? ?????????, ?????? ??????? ? ?. ?.
  • ????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????? , ????????? ???? ??????????? ? ???????? (???????, , ?????? ?????????? ), ? ????????????????? ? ??????????????? ????????????, ?????????? ??? ???????? .
  • ????????? ????? ????????? ? ????????? ????? ? ?????????? ?????. ????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ?? ???????????? ???????. ??-?? ??????????????? ?????????? ? ?????????????? ????? ???????????? ???????????. ?????? ? ??????? ???????? ?????????????? ????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ? ?????? .
  • ????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????????? ?????? ? ??????????? ???????????, ????????, ?????? ? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ???????: ?76?, ?76?, ?76? [ ?????? ] .
  • ??????? (??????-?????) — ?????, ?????????? ??????? ?????, ??????????? ? ???????? ? ???????.
  • ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ? ????????? ? ????????????, ???, ? ???? ???????, ?????????? ?? ????????????? ? ??????? ? ?????????????????? ? ???????? ??????????????? ??????????.
  • ????? ???????? ????? ?? ???????? ???????????????? ????????? ?????????? , ???????????? ? ??????????????? ??????? .

?????????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ? ?????????? ?????????. ?????????? ???????? ????????? ?? ??? ??????, ? ??????????? ?? ?? ??????? ?? ??????????? ???????????? ???????????: ?? ????-?????????????, ?????-????????????? ? ??????????? ???????????. ?????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????, ?????? ????????, ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ???, ?? ???????? ? ??????????? ?????????? ???????. ??????? ?????-??????????????: ???????? , ???????? , ??????? , ???? . ????-?????????????: ???????? , ???????, ?????? , ???? , ?????? . ??????????? ???????????: ????????, ?????, ???????. ????-?????????????, ? ???? ???????, ??????? ?? ????-?????????? ? ????-????????????????????.

????? ???????????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ????? Ti-6Al-4V (? ?????????? ????????????? — ??6), ?????????? ????? 6 % ???????? ? ????? 4 % ??????? . ?? ??????????? ??????????????? ??? ?? ???????????????? ??? (?+?) -?????. ?? ??? ???????????? ?????????? ?? 50 % ????????????? ?????? .

?????????? (????? ?????? ? ???????, ?????????? 18—25 % ??????) ?????????? ? ?????? ??????????? ??? ??????????? ????? ? ???????? ???????????? ? ??? ????????????? ???????? (????, ????, ????????) .

? 1980-? ????? ????? 60—65 % ????????????? ? ???? ?????? ?????????????? ? ????????????? ??????????? ????????? ? ?????, 15 % — ? ?????????? ??????????????, 10 % — ? ??????????, 8 % — ? ????????????? ????? ? ??? ???????????? ???? .

? ???? ??????????

?????? ?????? ???????????

? 2005 ???? ???????? «Titanium Corporation» ???????????? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ? ????:

  • 60 % — ??????;
  • 20 % — ???????;
  • 13 % — ??????;
  • 7 % — ??????????????.

????

???? ?????? ?????????? 5,9-6,0 $ ?? ?????????, ? ??????????? ?? ??????? .

??????? ? ????? ????????? ?????? ( ????????? ????? ) ?????? ???????????? ?? ??? ?????????, ??????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ????????.

??????????????? ????????

????? ????????? ?????????????? ????????, ????????? ???? ??????????? ? ?????????????? ??? ??????, ??????????????? ?????????????? ? ??????? ?????????. ?????? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ????????????? . ??? ???? ??????? ????, ????? ??????????? ????? ? ????????????. ????????????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ? ?????????, ?? ? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ? ?????? , ??? ???? ??????????? ?????????? ????????????????? ?????? ????.

??????????

  1. Meija J. et al. (????.) // Pure and Applied Chemistry . — 2016. — Vol. 88 , no. 3 . — P. 265—291 . — doi : .
  2. ? / D. R. Lide (Ed.). — 90th edition. — CRC Press; Taylor and Francis, 2009. — 2828 p. — ISBN 1420090844 .
  3. ? ????? ?. ?. ????? // ?????????? ???????????? : ? 5 ?. / ??. ???. ?. ?. ??????? . — ?. : ??????? ?????????? ???????????? , 1995. — ?. 4: ?????????? — ???????. — ?. 590—592. — 639 ?. — 40 000 ???. — ISBN 5-85270-039-8 .
  4. Riley J.P., Skirrow G. Chemical Oceanography V. 1, 1965.
  5. ?? 28 ????? 2015 ?? Wayback Machine .
  6. ?? 21 ??????? 2015 ?? Wayback Machine .
  7. (?????.) ???? ?????????: 17 ?????? 2007. ???????????? ?? 28 ??????? 2007 ????.
  8. (?????.) . ?????????????-????????????? ????? «???????». ???? ?????????: 19 ?????? 2010. 7 ??????? 2011 ????.
  9. ? ?????????? ?. ?. // ?????????? ???????????? : [? 5 ?.] / ??. ???. ?. ?. ???????? . — ?. : ??????? ?????????? ???????????? , 1994. — ?. 4: ????????? — ?????????? — ????????. — ?. 116. — 704 ?. — 40 000 ???. — ISBN 5-85270-087-8 .
  10. ??????????? ?. ?., ??????? ?. ?. ?????????? A 3 B 5 : ??????????. — ?.: ???????????, 1984. 144 ?.
  11. ???????? ?????????: ? 2 ?. ?. 1. ?????????? ????????: ??????????. ??? ???. ?. ?. ?????????. — ?.: ???????????, 1976. 600 ?.
  12. (?????.) . www.chemfive.ru. ???? ?????????: 21 ??????? 2015. ???????????? ?? 14 ??????? 2016 ????.
  13. ??????????? ????????? ????????????? ????? ?????? / ?. ?. ?????????, ?. ?. ????????? . — ?????? : [?. ?.], 1959. — 27 ?.; 20 ??. — (???????? ???????? ?? ????????? ?? ?????? ? ????????????????? ?????????).
  14. ???????? ?. ?. . — ??????????: ?? ?????, 2008. — ?. 67. — 68 ?. — ISBN 73.
  15. (?????.) . ???? ?????????: 18 ?????? 2010. 5 ??? 2012 ????.
  16. (?????.) . ???? ?????????: 2 ??? 2015. 11 ???????? 2015 ????.

??????


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