For his fundamental contributions to our understanding of human problem-solving behavior and decisionmaking, particularly in organizations

For her work in the development of the discipline of differential psychology as a behavioral science, which illuminates the way traits are influenced by heredity and environment and the methods by which traits and human characteristics are measured

For his efforts to advance the understanding of industry, its internal organization and relation to government, and for initiating the study of information and markets

For his theoretical contributions, and for application, of the principles of scientific empirical and statistical methods to the field of economics and the social sciences, and to problems critical to the Nation in general

For his pioneering work on the theory of modern decentralized allocation mechanisms

For fundamental contributions to economic science, specifically general equilibrium theory and macroeconomics, and to economic education and policy over a period for nearly 60 years

For his creation of the modern framework for analyzing the effects of investment and technological progress on economic growth, greatly influencing economics and economic policy worldwide

For his pioneering the economic analysis of racial discrimination, inventing the economics of human resources, producing the major modern innovations in economic demography and in economic criminology, and leading recent developments in how social forces shape individual economic behavior

For his half century of advances in economics, psychology, and sociology based on mathematical modeling of behavior

For his contribution to the field of economics exemplified by his work on general equilibrium theory, social welfare theory, endogenous growth theory, health economics, and information economics

For his unparalleled contributions to cognitive and mathematical psychology, for his lucid analyses of memory and learning, and for his important service to psychology and to American science

For his innovative application of technology to the understanding of brain function, his incisive and accurate modeling of functional tasks, and his development of methodological and conceptual tools to help understand the mind and the development of brain networks of attention

For his contributions to understanding the neural basis of perception and memory in primates, notably the delineation of sensory neocortical processing systems especially for vision, audition, and somatic sensation, and the organization of memory systems in the brain

For fundamental advances in the understanding of social learning mechanisms and self-referent thinking processes in motivation and behavior change, and for the development of the social cognitive theory of human action and psychological development

For his fundamental investigations of the comparative biochemistry of microorganisms, for his studies of the basic mechanisms of photosynthesis, and for his excellence as a teacher of many scientists.

For studies of the genetic control of protein synthesis and, in particular, for deciphering the chemical code relating nucleic acid structures to protein structures

For the original discovery and continued elaboration of the relationship between viruses and tumors, which has come to form the biologic base for so much of our present research effort on cancer

For penetrating studies of vertebrate evolution through geologic time, and for scholarly synthesis of a new understanding of organic evolution based upon genetics and paleontology

For classic studies of the chemistry of blood and of amino acid metabolism, and for the quantitative biochemical methodology underlying much of clinical medicine

For outstanding original contributions involving unique biological approaches to the control of insect vectors responsible for diseases of humans, domesticated animals, and plants

For original discoveries of molecular mechanisms for the transfer and transformation of energy in living cells, and for fundamental contributions to the conceptual structure of modern biochemistry

For the discovery of the essential amino acid threonine and for the subsequent brilliant studies elucidating the qualitative and quantitative amino acid requirements of man and of animals

For original and sustained contributions to the mathematical foundations of the theory of evolution and for basic contributions to experimental and biometrical genetics

For highly original experimental and theoretical investigations of the electrical properties of biological membranes that have led to a deep understanding of the functioning of nerves

For original and ingenious contributions to comparative and experimental psychology, particularly in the controlled study of learning and motivations, the determinants of animal behavior, and development of affectional behavior

For placing the science of immunology on a quantitative chemical basis, and for showing its power to reveal the structure of molecules found in the living organism

For a long and distinguished career in genetics during which he discovered and interpreted a number of important genetic phenomena in Drosophila and other organisms

For his profound study of the chemical activities of microorganisms, including the unraveling of fatty acid metabolism and the discovery of the active coenzyme form of vitamin B12

For pioneering new qualitative concepts which have revolutionized the development, the study, and the effective use of therapeutic agents in the treatment of human disease

For his highly original research in the field of physiology and for his manifold contributions to the advance of science and its institution in the service of society

For bringing the science of genetics to bear upon animal breeding, and thus helping to remould the flocks and herds of America and Western Europe

For basic and imaginative contributions to the study of behavior which have had profound influence upon all of psychology and many related areas

For contributions to the modern understanding of the biology of viruses and their role in the induction of diverse diseases

For notable contributions to systematics, biogeography, and the study of birds, and especially for great work on the evolution of animal populations

For establishing the relations between inherited characters in plants and the detailed shapes of their chromosomes, and for showing that some genes are controlled by other genes within chromosomes

For numerous fundamental contributions to the understanding of viruses and viral diseases, culminating in the development of the vaccine which has eliminated poliomyelitis as a major threat to human health

For fundamental research into the mechanism of green plant utilization of light to produce chemical energy and oxygen and for contributions to our understanding of plant nutrition

For the discovery that epinephrine and hormones of the pituitary gland occasion their diverse regulatory effects by initiating cellular synthesis of cyclic adenylic acid, now recognized as a universal biological second messenger, which opened a new level of understanding of the subtle mechanisms that integrate the chemical life of the cell while offering hope of entirely new approaches to chemotherapy

For his contributions to our knowledge of cellular and subcellular physiology made through work on enzyme-substrate complexes, on the kinetics of enzyme action, and on the mechanism and control of membrane-bound electron transfer during cellular respiration

For fundamental chemical and biological studies establishing the basis for modern concepts of the mechanisms of protein synthesis and the genetic role of nucleic acids

For pioneering achievements in creating the science of human genetics and discovering the genetic basis of several human diseases

For outstanding leadership in biomedical research following an earlier career in distinguished laboratory investigation of kidney function and antimalarial drugs

For outstanding contributions to agronomic research including the development of radically new and improved semidwarf varieties of wheat that now grow on five continents and have made the green revolution a reality

For fundamental research on nerve potentials, electroencephalography, and mechanisms of hearing that have formed the basis for advances in neurophysiology, neurology, otolaryngology, audiology, acoustics, occupational health safety, and pediatrics

For his discovery of three vitamins and related research that have greatly improved human nutrition

For the initiation of basic research in the physical and chemical properties of soils and proteins that have profoundly influenced agricultural practices and the production of food plants

For fundamental contributions to the elucidation of the fine structure of cells by electron microscopy, which has inaugurated a new era of cell biology integrating structure and function into a comprehensive picture of the life of cells

For major contributions to understanding the subcellular mechanism whereby oxidative and photosynthetic energy is transformed into the specific form of chemical energy used by living cells

For his pioneering work on the organization of insect societies and the evolution of social behavior among insects and other animals

For demonstrating the presence of a new class of hormones, made in the brain, that regulate the function of the pituitary gland, thereby making possible improved diagnosis and treatment of numerous endocrine disorders

For important contributions to biochemistry and molecular biology, discoveries that contributed greatly to our understanding of the mechanisms for energy generation within a cell, the mechanism whereby proteins are synthesized within a cell and the elucidation of the genetic code

For numerous original contributions leading to an understanding of the physiology and biochemistry of the process of biological nitrogen fixation

For his outstanding contributions to the synthesis of an evolutionary theory, particularly as it applies to plants

For seminal contributions to understanding of the energy metabolism of anaerobic bacteria and for elucidation of major mechanisms whereby the rates of metabolic processes are finely matched to the requirements of the living cell

For outstanding contributions to comparative and human neuroanatomy and for the synthesis and transmission of knowledge of the entire nervous system of the vertebrate phylum

For outstanding contributions to cell biology and understanding of the development of the nervous system including the basis for surgical repair of injury to peripheral nerves

For accomplishments providing the conceptual and experimental framework for much of our current understanding of the manner in which DNA, the genetic substance, is replicated

For his outstanding contributions to biochemical research, resulting in significant contributions to mankind, including research that led to a clearer understanding of pellagra, and for his national leadership in furthering the state of American science

For elucidating the fine structure of the gene and unifying the classical and molecular concepts of gene structure and function

For outstanding contributions to the biological sciences that have helped to feed the hungry, protect and beautify the environment, and provide recreation for millions

For pioneering the use of stable isotopic tracers and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the study of the mechanisms of enzymatic catalysis

For his pioneering research in molecular virology, including identification of the immunizing protein, and his collaborative role in the use of gene splicing to produce the first effective protein vaccine for use in animals or humans

For her pioneering contributions to establishing the concept of neurosecretion and the demonstration of the central role of neurosecretion and neuropeptides in the integration of animal function and development

For fundamental contributions to understanding the mechanisms of gene expression, for the development of recombinant DNA, and for a deep concern for its safe and humane application to medicine

For his fundamental contributions to basic and applied biology in the field of insect pheromones, their chemical composition and blends, their biosysnthesis, how insects perceive and respond to them, and their use in insect pest management

For pioneering discoveries of a host of fundamental, highly organized structures in living cells through studies combining electron microscopy and biochemistry. These contributions stimulated the growth of the field of cell biology, which he continues to inspire through his own research and leadership active collaboration, and the training of new investigators

For her major contributions to the basic molecular biology of bacterial and mammalian cells. Her discovery of at least six new components of the cellular machinery is an accomplishment of great distinction in both basic molecular biology and in the clinical treatment of autoimmune disease

For his pioneering discovery and characterization of hormone-like growth factors which specifically control the multiplication of certain cells during growth and development

For his leading role as chief architect and implementer of the World Health Organization’s successful global eradication of smallpox

For his fundamental research on how the brain functions in processing and perceiving the information gathered through the somatic sensory system

For his pioneering medical innovations throughout his medical career and his unique ability to bring his vast professional knowledge to bear on public policy as a national and international medical statesman

For the discovery of viroids, the smallest known agent of infectious disease. This discovery has opened new avenues of molecular research into some of the most serious diseases afflicting plants, animals, and humans

For his research in the development of reproducible conditions for the growth in culture of human and animal cells

For his innovative contributions that significantly contributed to our understanding of gene structure, membrane function and vision and for the work stimulated by his research which has had a major impact on the biological and chemical sciences

For a major breakthrough in neurobiology by her discovery of the Nerve Growth Factor and its effect on the growth of the sympathetic nervous system which set the stage for worldwide studies of the molecules involved in normal and malignant growth

For their historic discovery of the basic mechanisms controlling cholesterol metabolism, opening the way to a new pharmacologic approach to the treatment of cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death and disability in the Western world

For his discovery of methods for propagating and expressing the hereditary information of DNA introduced into living cells, thereby enabling the cloning of individual genes and the study of their structure and function

For her historic contributions to the discovery and development of radioimmunassay, a technique that employs radioactive isotopes to detect and measure the levels of insulin and hormones in the blood and body tissues

For his brilliant discoveries in basic research and ingenious inventiveness in creating vaccines that are the foundation for control of infectious diseases through immunologic intervention, preventing death and disability in millions of persons worldwide

For discovering the first cellular and molecular mechanisms contributing to simple learning and memory

For his work on neurospecificity which showed how the intricate brain networks for behavior are effected through a system of chemical coding of individual cells, which has made fundamental contributions to the understanding of human nature

For her distinguished service to the American community of plant biologists, and for the excellence of her pioneering research, both basic and applied, on plant structure and development, which has spanned more than six decades; for her superlative performance as an educator, in the classroom and through her books; for the encouragement and inspiration she has given to a legion of young, aspiring plant biologists; and for providing a special role model for women in science

For his pioneering work on the biochemistry of CO ₂ fixation, for major contributions to medical education, and for leadership in biochemistry at the national and international levels

For his steadfast work that led to the discovery and understanding of normally occurring neuronal death, nerve growth factor, and competitive relationships in the vertebrate nervous system

For his innovative studies that have significantly advanced knowledge and provided new directions for research in molecular genetics, immunology and cancer etiology

For his work in bacterial genetics and immune cell single type antibody production; for his seminal research in artificial intelligence in biochemistry and medicine; and for his extensive advisory role in government, industry and international organizations that address themselves to the societal role of science

For his fundamental contributions to the understanding of the immune system, including much of the work which forms the basis of knowledge of transplantation immunology and regulatory function in the immune response

For his contributions to the basic research of the development of recombinant DNA technology. This seminal breakthrough has opened new vistas in experimental biology, and it has led directly to the development of the biotechnology industry.

For his pioneering work in the science and application of transplantation biology to successful bone marrow transplantation in man for the treatment of cancer and related conditions

For his demonstration and exploration of the genetic control of the development of body segments by homeotic genes

For his contributions to the understanding of the pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of thalassemia; for his contributions to the understanding of disorders of red cell permeability; for his contributions to the understanding of the regulation of erythropoiesis; and for his contributions to the raining of a generation of hematologists and oncologists

For her discovery of the major cause of respiratory distress syndrome of premature infants and the straegies for treatment and prevention

For his pioneering work on plant hormones, including discovery of cyotkinins (a major class), chemical induction of organ formation and regulation of morphogenesis in plants, and contributions to the development of plant tissue culture as an experimental technique of fundamental importance in biotechnology

For his pioneering research of protein biosynthesis, opening the door to biochemical attack, and paving the way for dissection of the genetic code; and for introducing the concept and method of antisense DNA as an approach to viral gene inhibition and chemotherapy

For his fundamental contributions to the understanding of natural and man-made hazards, global environmental change, and the prevalence and persistence of world hunger

For his seminal contributions in the field of immunology, and for bringing the field to its present prominence

For his contribution to hematology in defining the genetic basis for G6PD deficiency and thalassemia, and discovery of an approach to control cancer cell proliferation with new inducers of differentiation

For a lifetime devoted to applying genetics to viruses and bacteria, and for guiding the development of generations of students who have helped create the modern power of molecular biology

For her outstanding scientific accomplishments and her deep concern for the societal responsibility of the scientist

For his demonstration of the existence of RNA-directed DNA synthesis, leading to the discovery of proto-oncogenes within eukaryotic cells and the role of such genes in oncogenesis by viruses and other agents, laying the foundation for our knowledge of the replication of HIV, changing our ideas about evolution, and providing vital technology for genetic engineering and human gene therapy

For her lifetime of work on developmental genetics, providing a large body of knowledge on the study of mammalian genetics

For his seminal research in molecular genetics that formed a foundation for contemporary biotechnology

For his seminal contributions in the fields of insect behavior and chemical ecology, and for his international efforts on biodiversity

For her contributions to the understanding of the lysosomal storage diseases, demonstrating the strong linkage between basic and applied scientific investigation

For his numerous fundamental contributions to our knowledge of the structure and function of DNA and RNA, the central information carriers in living systems

For her algal research, particularly the ecology and paleoecology of diatoms, and for elucidating the importance of biodiversity of aquatic life in ascertaining the natural condition of rivers and the effects of pollution

For five decades of scientific and intellectual leadership in molecular biology, ranging from his co-discovery of the double helical structure of DNA to the launching of the Human Genome Project

For his contribution to the identification of cellular oncogenes and their role in cancer, which led to a better understanding of the molecular basis for cancer and its diagnosis and therapy

For changing the direction of basic and applied research on mutation, cancer and aging by devising a simple, inexpensive test for environmental and natural mutagens, by identifying causes and effects of oxidative DNA damage, and by translating these findings into intelligible public policy recommendations on diet and cancer risk for the American people

For his fundamental discoveries in virology, tumor biology and immunology, notably the discovery of how tumor-causing viruses multiply; for his devotion to building excellence in scientific institutions; and for his statesmanship in fostering communication between scientists and the general public

For his exceptionally creative scholarship, including seminal research in physiology, ecology, conservation biology, and history; for his outstanding role in communicating science by explaining technical advances in widely understandable terms, and for his overwhelming dedication to science’s role in building a better future

For her outstanding contributions to understanding of the development, structure, and evolution of living things, for inspiring new research in the biological, climatological, geological and planetary sciences, and for her extraordinary abilities as a teacher and communicator of science to the public

For his contributions to the dynamics of plant systematics and evolution, the introduction of the concept of coevolution, and his major contribution to the international efforts to preserve biodiversity

For her pivotal contributions to the social and behavioral sciences, through the integrative study of mind, brain, and behavior, by joining behavioral science with the technologies of neuroscience and neuroimaging in order to understand mental processes such as memory and creativity, and mental illnesses such as schizophrenia

For his brilliant and original insights, through molecular studies of RNA sequences, to explore the history of life on Earth. His vision has revolutionized our view of life’s evolution and diversity

For his theoretical and experimental discoveries on the origin of species, genetic diversity, and population dynamics that led to a new understanding of biological evolution, and his distinguished contributions to education, the promotion of public understanding of science, and the philosophy and ethics of the scientific enterprise

For pioneering ocean technology and creating a new branch of scholarship, nautical archaeology, thereby providing new knowledge of the histories of economics, technology, and literacy

For his groundbreaking research which has revolutionized biomedical research and provided a powerful tool for understanding disease mechanisms and gene functions

For his co-discovery of the cellular origins of retroviral oncogenes, which heralded a new era in the control of human cancer and for reinvigorating the nation’s medical research enterprise

For her pioneering contributions to the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the brain, including the structure, chemistry, and function of the pathways subserving thought and movement

For his discovery of acid rain in North America and his sustained leadership in developing the fields of ecology and ecosystem science

For basic and applied contributions to the founding of medical genetics and the human genome project

For her insightful and pioneering investigations on the genetics of DNA mutagenesis and DNA repair that have increased our understanding of processes as varied as evolution and the development of cancer

For his seminal scientific discoveries related to gene expression in animal cells, including pathways of RNA processing and signal transduction from the cell surface to genes in the nucleus, and for his contributions as a scientific educator

For his fundamental contributions to our understanding of how genetic messages are read and translated into proteins, including important mechanisms of RNA-based gene regulation

For his major contributions to the understanding of neurotransmitters, their receptors in the nervous system, mechanisms of action of psychoactive drugs, and pathways of signal transduction in the brain

For his discovery that the genes that determine the cancer-causing potential of certain viruses are counterparts of and derived from essential cellular genes, and that derangement of these cellular genes can lead to growth aberrations and cancer

For his pioneering work in liver transplantation and his discoveries in immunosuppressive medication that advanced the field of organ transplantation

For his contributions to understanding the biochemical pathway of RNA interference phenomena and for his use of RNA interference techniques to perform genetic analyses in mammalian cells

For his success in breeding semi-dwarf, disease-resistant high-yield wheat and instructing farmers in its cultivation under harsh growing conditions, thus providing a new high-quality food source for millions of people around the world

For providing key insights into the operation of the visual system and for the discovery of the manner in which neural connections in the brain are made during development and how they are maintained

For pioneering the understanding of the mechanisms whereby the human immune system is regulated, and for his work on dissecting the mechanisms of pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that has served as the underpinning for the current strategies for the treatment of HIV disease

For his pioneering application of fluorescence spectroscopy, and particularly fluorescence resonance energy transfer, to the analysis of biological macromolecules; he elucidated the biochemical basis of signal amplification in vision and pioneered the development of high density micro-arrays for genetic analysis («gene chips»). His influential biochemistry textbook has influenced and inspired millions of students

For her pioneering work on plant molecular biology, and for her being the first to clone and characterize maize transposons. She has contributed to education and public policy pertaining to recombinant DNA and genetic modification of plants

For her in-depth research that has contributed to a greater understanding of the ecology, physiology, and evolution of marine microbes, most notably Vibrio cholerae, the causative agent of pandemic cholera, and which has elucidated critical links between environmental and human health

For his pioneering work on the molecular mechanisms of steroid hormone action and hormone receptors and coactivators, which has had a profound impact on our knowledge of steroid hormones in normal development and in diseases, including cancer

For his discovery of the seven transmembrane receptors, deemed the largest, most versatile, and most therapeutically accessible receptor signaling system, and for describing the general mechanism of their regulation, influencing all fields of medical practice

For his dedication to the advancement of the science of genomics, his contributions to our understanding of its implications for society, and his commitment to the clear communication of information to the scientific community, the public, and policymakers

For her pioneering use of cell biology and molecular genetics in mice to understand the basis of inherited diseases in humans and her outstanding contributions to our understanding of the biology of skin and its disorders, including her notable investigations of adult skin stem cells, cancers, and genetic syndromes

For his visionary contributions to the fields of genetics and genomics through the work of his own laboratory and his leadership of multiple international genomics initiatives, including the Human Genome Project

For her studies of protein folding, demonstrating that alternative protein conformations and aggregations can have profound and unexpected biological influences, facilitating insights in fields as wide-ranging as human disease, evolution, and biomaterials

For his discovery of prions, the causative agent of bovine spongiform encephalopathy and other related neurodegenerative diseases, and his continuing efforts to develop effective methods for detecting and treating prion diseases

For his fundamental contributions to the development and use of transgenic mice. His research has provided experimental foundations and inspiration for progress in germline genetic modification in a range of species, which has generated a revolution in biology, medicine, and agriculture

For improving our understanding of epigenetic regulation of gene expression: the biological mechanisms that affect how genetic information is variably expressed. His work has led to major advances in our understanding of mammalian cloning and embryonic stem cells

For contributions to the discovery and understanding of the dominant photosynthetic organisms in the ocean, promotion of the field of microbial oceanography, and influence on marine policy and management

For the pioneering discovery that the bacterial cell is controlled by an integrated genetic circuit functioning in time and space that serves as a systems engineering paradigm underlying cell differentiation and ultimately the generation of diversity in all organisms

For pioneering spirit, passion, vision, inventions, and leadership combined with unique cross-disciplinary approaches resulting in entrepreneurial ventures, transformative commercial products, and several new scientific disciplines that have challenged and transformed the fields of biotechnology, genomics, proteomics, personalized medicine, and science education

For pioneering studies on chemical coevolution and the genetic basis of insect-plant interactions, and for enthusiastic commitment to public engagement that inspires others about the wonders of science

For intellectual leadership and experimental innovation in the field of DNA replication, and for unparalleled dedication to improving science education and promoting science-based public policy

For pioneering research at the interface of engineering and oncology, including tumor microenvironment, drug delivery and imaging, and for groundbreaking discoveries of principles leading to the development and novel use of drugs for treatment of cancer and non-cancerous diseases

For international leadership in environmental science, straddling ecology and applied mathematics, to promote conservation; for his impact on a generation of environmental scientists; and for his critical contributions to ecology, environmental economics, epidemiology, applied mathematics, and evolution

For pioneering contributions to human genetics, including discovery of the BRCA1 susceptibility gene for breast cancer; and for development of genetic methods to match «disappeared» victims of human rights abuses with their families

For his monumental contributions toward understanding how microbes cause disease and resist the effects of antibiotics, and for his inspiring mentorship that created the field of molecular microbial pathogenesis

For superb contributions [to chemistry] as a scientist, teacher and imaginative leader in furthering the constructive interaction of academic and industrial scientists

For his contributions as one of the world’s most innovative and productive organic synthetic chemists who has discovered a variety of important synthetic reactions which have made possible the synthesis of some of the most complicated and important biologically active compounds

For his leadership in the science and engineering basic to aeronautics; for his effective teaching and related contributions in many fields of mechanics, for his distinguished counsel to the Armed Services, and for his promoting international cooperation in science and engineering.

For his outstanding contributions to communications theory, electron optics and traveling wave tubes, and for the analysis leading to world-wide radio communications using artificial earth satellites.

For his distinguished achievements in electrical engineering, in the technology of computing machines, in the effective coupling of the physical and life sciences; and in his mobilizing science, engineering and education in enduring ways in the service of the Nation.

For a half-century of distinguished leadership in the design of great bridges which combine beauty and utility with bold engineering concept and method

For his marvellously versatile contributions, profoundly original, ranging within pure and applied mathematics, and penetrating boldly into the engineering and biological sciences

For his fundamental contributions to the mathematical theory of modern data networks, and for the functional specification of packet switching, which is the foundation of Internet technology. His mentoring of generations of students has led to the commercialization of technologies that have transformed the world

For his inspiring leadership in experimental high energy physics, continuing development of the bubble chamber, discovery of many states of elementary particles, and his contributions to National defense

For an imaginative new approach to the synthesis of complex organic molecules and, especially, for [his] brilliant syntheses of strychnine, reserphine, lysergic acid, and chlorophyll

In recognition of his major contributions to the elucidation of the complex chemistry of the steroid hormones and to the application of these compounds to medicinal chemistry and population control by means of oral contraceptives

For his unique contributions to the discovery of the chemical nature and source of smog, and for the successful efforts which he has carried through for smog abatement